Destiny has a complicated loot buying and upgrade system, little of which is explained by the game itself. Integral to buying new gear (and improving the items you already have) are resources--certain materials scattered around the game's planets.
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There is one discoverable resource type on each planet, and you'll no doubt run across them all in your travels. The tips below will hopefully help you sort out what you'll need and, more importantly, what you can use it for.
The Main Resources And Where To Find Them
The four discoverable, randomly placed resources can found in the Patrol mode on each planet, which just allows you to roam the open environments with no particular mission or objective. They are Spinmetal on Earth, Helium Filaments on the Moon, Spirit Bloom on Venus, and Relic Iron on Mars.
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They will spawn randomly each time you play Patrol, and are often in obscure places on the map. Spinmetal looks like a shiny silver plant, Helium Filaments are bright metal and orange tubes, Spirit Bloom is a plant with a glowing bulb of light, and Relic Iron is a purple-tinged ore rock. You will occasionally come across these without looking, but they are often tucked away along the map's perimeter wall or between some rocks. Check every corner if you're actively searching--resources are normally roughly 100 yards apart. It's also worth noting that any material can be randomly awarded in a loot chest, as drops from bosses, and completing missions.
More specifcally, Spinmetal is usually around the edges of any region in the Cosomodrome--look towards building walls that surround a particular area. It can blend in with the landscape in some spots, but shimmers enough to catch your eye amongst rocks. Helium Filaments are probably the most easy to spot, and their bright color stands out from the rocky moon surface--look just off the main paths and along the side of walkways. Spirit Bloom is often nestled alongside large rock formations on Venus, and the glowing effect will often stand out. Finally, Relic Iron is maybe the most subtle with its smaller size and a color similar to some of the other rocks, but the purple hue and squat shape are what to look for.
Why You'll Need Them
It's easy to pass up some Spinmetal when running through the Cosmodrome, but you should always make a point to grab any resource you see. You might not need it right now, but you will eventually--and when you do, it'll get spent quickly. Resources are used to upgrade legendary and exotic weapons. When a weapon is used enough and its icon bears a plus symbol, that means it can be upgraded. This is often done just with glimmer, but the better weapons will require bundles of materials at once to upgrade. It won't be an issue for a time, until you're suddenly short on the resource you need when you go to increase the armor of your favorite helmet.
Alternative Resource Uses
The materials you gather can be used in other ways, if you're not particularly concerned with improving your gear or already have a fully upgraded set. You can trade in resources to the Vanguard or Crucible Quartermasters for Vanguard Marks and Reputation or Crucible Marks and Reputation, respectively.
50 of one material will currently net you 5 marks, 25 reputation, and 200 glimmer. It's not the best exchange rate in the world, given that it takes a lot of time to get that many resources, but the deal isn't too bad if you really don't need your materials. These marks can be used to purchase high-level gear from the Quartermasters, and the Crucible Marks can be spent at faction vendors, as well. There are other more efficient ways to get marks, though, and it seems a better idea to devote your resources to item upgrades.
